傳統上論及身體―靈魂二元的問題主要以笛卡兒以擴延性和認知性二分物質與精神為代表。二十世紀中期以來，這樣的觀點卻開始受到持消減的物質主義的哲學家質疑，而趨向將人類的心靈、知覺等活動化歸於腦的反應過程。八○年代開始，認知科學藉由各種精密儀器的幫助，並綜合心理學、語言學、腦神經科學等各方面的研究，對於人的本性的描述取消心智現象、只剩身體現象，直接造成對西方哲學自由意志、主體意識的觀點以及宗教討論靈魂、相信、永生等議題之巨大衝擊。

Descartes’ definition of humanity as the combination of res extensa and res cogitans has been the representative theory on the debate over body-soul dualism. Since the middle of the 20th century, however, this perspective was challenged by philosophers who upheld the Eliminative Materialism and tended to reduce human mental and sensory activities to the reaction process of the brain. Beginning from the 1980s, with the help of various kinds of sophisticated instruments and the interdisciplinary study of psychology, linguistics, and neuroscience, cognitive science, which describes human nature as a mechanical or physical process without soul/mind, has exerted much impact on western philosophy on the issues of free will, consciousness (Bewusstsein), and mind (Geist), as well as on religion on the issues of soul, faith, and eternity.